Chumbley JR Burke CJ Stephan KE Friston KJ Tobler PN Fehr E 2014 Surprise drives learning. Various neural "prediction error" signals are believed to underpin surprise-based reinforcement learning. Here, we report a surprise signal that reflects reinforcement learning but is neither un/signed reward prediction error (RPE) nor un/signed state prediction error (SPE). To exclude these alternatives, we measured surprise responses in the absence of RPE and accounted for a host of potential SPE confounds. This new surprise signal was evident in ventral striatum, primary sensory cortex, frontal poles, and amygdala. We interpret these findings via a normative model of surprise. application/pdf https://sonar.ch/global/documents/287291 eng info:eu-repo/semantics/altIdentifier/doi/10.1002/hbm.22513 info:eu-repo/semantics/altIdentifier/pmid/24700400 info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess Human brain mapping. - 2014 learning prediction error reward Adult Anticipation, Psychological Brain Brain Mapping Feedback, Psychological Humans Magnetic Resonance Imaging Male Models, Neurological Neuropsychological Tests Reinforcement, Psychology Self Report Young Adult Surprise beyond prediction error. http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501