Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests.
Slik JWFEnvironmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam; ferryslik@hotmail.com janet.franklin@ucr.edu.
Franklin JDepartment of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521; ferryslik@hotmail.com janet.franklin@ucr.edu.
Arroyo-Rodríguez VInstituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
Field RSchool of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
Aguilar SCenter for Tropical Forest Science, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama.
Aguirre NBiodiversity and Ecosystem Services Research Program, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja EC110103, Ecuador.
Ahumada JThe Moore Center for Science, Conservation International, Arlington, VA 22202.
Aiba SIGraduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
Alves LFCenter for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
K AForest and Environment Program, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia.
Avella AInstituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá 111321, Colombia.
Mora FInstituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
Aymard C GAUNELLEZ-Guanare, Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT), Mesa de Cavacas, Estado Portuguesa 3350, Venezuela.
Báez SDepartamento de Biología, Escuela Politécnica Nacional del Ecuador, Ladrón de Guevara E11-253, Quito, Ecuador.
Balvanera PInstituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
Bastian MLSmithsonian's National Zoo, Animal Care Sciences, Primates, Washington, DC 20013-7012.
Bastin JFInstitute of Integrative Biology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
Bellingham PJLandcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.
van den Berg EDepartamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras-MG, 37200-000, Brazil.
da Conceição Bispo PCentre for Landscape and Climate Research, Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, United Kingdom.
Boeckx PIsotope Bioscience Laboratory (ISOFYS), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
Boehning-Gaese KSenckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), 60325 Frankfurt (Main), Germany.
Bongers FForest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Boyle BHardner & Gullison Associates, Victoria, BC V8P 1A9, Canada.
Brambach FEcology and Ecosystem Research, Georg August University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
Brearley FQSchool of Science and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, United Kingdom.
Brown SEnvironment Group, Winrock International, St Dogmaels SA43 3 DT, United Kingdom.
Chai SLEcosystem Management Unit, InnoTech Alberta, Vegreville, AB T9C 1T4, Canada.
Chazdon RLDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3043.
Chen SCollege of Environment and Ecology, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China.
Chhang PForest and Wildlife Research Institute, 12101 Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Chuyong GDepartment of Botany and Plant Physiology, University of Buea, POB 63 Buea, Cameroon.
Ewango CWildlife Conservation Society-Program DR Congo, B.P. 14537 Brazzaville, DR Congo.
Coronado IMDepartamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua, Herbario HULE, León 505, Nicaragua.
Cristóbal-Azkarate JDivision of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3QG, United Kingdom.
Culmsee HDBU Natural Heritage, German Federal Foundation for the Environment, 49090 Osnabrück, Germany.
Damas KPNG Forest Research Institute, Lae 411, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
Dattaraja HSCentre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
Davidar PDepartment of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
DeWalt SJDepartment of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634.
Din HEnvironmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
Drake DRBotany Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822.
Duque ADepartamento de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia.
Durigan GLaboratório de Ecologia e Hidrologia Florestal, Floresta Estadual de Assis, Instituto Florestal de SP, 19802-970 Assis, SP, Brazil.
Eichhorn KEichhorn Ecologie, 3702 BK Zeist, The Netherlands.
Eler ESInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
Enoki TKasuya Research Forest, Kyushu University, Sasaguri, Fukuoka 811-2415, Japan.
Ensslin AInstitute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, 3013 Bern, Switzerland.
Fandohan ABEcole de Foresterie et Ingénierie du Bois, Université Nationale d'Agriculture, BP 45, Kétou, Benin.
Garcia QSDepartamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Garkoti SCSchool of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
Gillespie TWDepartment of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
Gillet JFTERRA Teaching and Research Center, Central African Forests, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
Gonmadje CDepartment of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, BP 812, Cameroon.
Granzow-de la Cerda ICREAF, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain.
Griffith DMUniversidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja 1101608, Ecuador.
Grogan JMount Holyoke College Botanic Garden, South Hadley, MA 01075.
Hakeem KRDepartment of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
Harris DJRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, United Kingdom.
Harrison RDWorld Agroforestry Centre, East and Southern Africa Region, Woodlands, Lusaka, Zambia.
Hector ADepartment of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom.
Hemp ADepartment of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany.
Homeier JPlant Ecology, Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences, Georg August University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
Hussain MSBiodiversity Parks Programme, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
Ibarra-Manríquez GInstituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
Hanum IFFaculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang-43400, Selangor, Malaysia.
Imai NDepartment of Forest Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan.
Jansen PACenter for Tropical Forest Science, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama.
Joly CAUNICAMP, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz-Barão Geraldo, Campinas, Sao Paulo 13083-970, Brazil.
Joseph SForest and Environment Program, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia.
Kartawinata KIntegrative Research Center, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL 60605.
Kearsley EComputational and Applied Vegetation Ecology (CAVElab), Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
Kelly DLTrinity Centre for Biodiversity Research, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
Kessler MDepartment of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland.
Kooyman RMDepartment of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia.
Laumonier YForest and Environment Program, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia.
Laurance SGCentre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia.
Laurance WFCentre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia.
Lawes MJSchool of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville 3209, South Africa.
Letcher SGDepartment of Plant Biology, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, ME 04609.
Lindsell JThe RSPB Centre for Conservation Science, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, United Kingdom.
Lovett JSchool of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.
Lozada JFacultad de Ciencias Forestales y Ambientales, Universidad de Los Andes, Merida S101-A, Venezuela.
Lu XKey Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of State Forestry Administration, Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China.
Lykke AMDepartment of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark.
Mahmud KBFaculty of Bioresources and Food Sciences, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, 20300, Besut Campus, Terengganu, Malaysia.
Mahayani NPDFaculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
Mansor ASchool of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
Marshall ARCIRCLE, University of York, York YO10 5NG, United Kingdom.
Martin EHCollege of African Wildlife Management, Department of Wildlife Management, Moshi, Tanzania.
Meave JADepartamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, Mexico.
Melo FPLCenter for Biosciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, Recife PE, 50670-901, Brazil.
Mendoza ZHAHerbario Loja, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja EC110103, Ecuador.
Metali FEnvironmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
Medjibe VPCommission des Forêts d'Afrique Centrale (COMIFAC), BP 20818 Yaoundé, Cameroon.
Metzger JPDepartment of Ecology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
Metzker TDepartamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Mohandass DDepartment of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
Munguía-Rosas MALaboratorio de Ecología Terrestre, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV), C.P. 927310 Mérida, México.
Muñoz RDepartamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, Mexico.
Nurtjahy EDepartment of Biology, Universitas Bangka Belitung (UBB), Kampus Merawang, Kepulauan Bangka Belitung 33172, Indonesia.
de Oliveira ELPrograma de Pós Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso-UNEMAT, 78200-000 Cáceres, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
OnrizalFaculty of Forestry, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan 20155, Indonesia.
Parolin PDepartment of Biodiversity, Evolution and Ecology of Plants, Biocentre Klein Flottbek, University of Hamburg, D-22609 Hamburg, Germany.
Parren MWorld Resource Institute, Washington, DC 20002.
Parthasarathy NDepartment of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
Paudel ECentre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China.
Perez RCenter for Tropical Forest Science, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama.
Pérez-García EADepartamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, Mexico.
Pommer USenckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), 60325 Frankfurt (Main), Germany.
Poorter LForest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Qie LInstitut Sophia Agrobiotech, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France.
Piedade MTFInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
Pinto JRRDepartamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, 70910-900, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil.
Poulsen ADRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, United Kingdom.
Poulsen JRNicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708.
Powers JSCollege of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108.
Prasad RCInternational Institute of Information Technology, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telangana 500032, India.
Puyravaud JPSigur Nature Trust, Chadapatti, Masinagudi PO Nilgiris, TN 643223, India.
Rangel OInstituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá 111321, Colombia.
Reitsma JBureau Waardenburg, 4100 AJ Culemborg, The Netherlands.
Rocha DSBPrograma de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil.
Rolim SLaboratório de Restinga e Floresta Atlântica, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, BR-101 São Mateus, Brazil.
Rovero FTropical Biodiversity Section, MUSE - Museo delle Scienze, 38122 Trento, Italy.
Rozak ACibodas Botanic Gardens, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cipanas, Cianjur, West Java 43253, Indonesia.
Ruokolainen KDepartment of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, Turku, 20014 Turun yliopisto, Finland.
Rutishauser ECenter for Tropical Forest Science, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama.
Rutten GInstitute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, 3013 Bern, Switzerland.
Mohd Said MNSchool of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
Saiter FZInstituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Espírito Santo, São João de Petrópolis, Santa Teresa, 29660-000, Brazil.
Saner PDepartment of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Santos BDepartamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, Brazil.
Dos Santos JRRemote Sensing Department (DSR), National Institute for Space Research (INPE), São José dos Campos, São Paulo 12227-010, Brazil.
Sarker SKInstitute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom.
Schmitt CBCenter for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, 53113 Bonn, Germany.
Schoengart JInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
Schulze MH.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Blue River, OR 97413.
Sheil DFaculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1432 Ås, Norway.
Sist PCirad-ES, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA C-105/D 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
Souza AFDepartamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, CEP 59078-970, Brazil.
Spironello WRInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
Sposito TDepartamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Steinmetz RWorld Wildlife Fund Thailand, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
Stevart TAfrica and Madagascar Department, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO 63110.
Suganuma MSFederal University of Technology-Paraná, 86812-460, Apucarana, PR, Brazil.
Sukri REnvironmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
Sultana ABiodiversity Parks Programme, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
Sukumar RCentre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
Sunderland TForest and Environment Program, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia.
SupriyadiFaculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
Suresh HSCentre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
Suzuki EGraduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
Tabarelli MDepartamento de Botânica, Cidade Universitária, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, CEP, 50670-901, Brazil.
Tang JKey Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun Town, Mengla County, Yunnan Province 666303, China.
Tanner EVJDepartment of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom.
Targhetta NInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
Theilade IDepartment of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, 1165 Copenhagen, Denmark.
Thomas DDepartment of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA 98686.
Timberlake JHerbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom.
de Morisson Valeriano MRemote Sensing Department (DSR), National Institute for Space Research (INPE), São José dos Campos, São Paulo 12227-010, Brazil.
van Valkenburg JNetherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety, Authority, National Reference Centre, 6700HC Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Van Do TResearch Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
Van Sam HScience, Technology and International Cooperation Department, Vietnam National University of Forestry, Hanoi 144, Vietnam.
Vandermeer JHDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.
Verbeeck HComputational and Applied Vegetation Ecology (CAVElab), Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
Vetaas ORDepartment of Geography, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway.
Adekunle VDepartment of Forestry and Wood Technology, The Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704 Akure, Nigeria.
Vieira SAUNICAMP, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz-Barão Geraldo, Campinas, Sao Paulo 13083-970, Brazil.
Webb COArnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02130.
Webb ELDepartment of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
Wich SSchool of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom.
Williams JInstituto Politécnico Nacional, CIIDIR-Unidad Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, CP 71230, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Wiser SLandcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.
Wittmann FDepartment of Floodplain Ecology, Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, D-76437 Rastatt, Germany.
Yang XCollege of Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Meilan Qu Haikou Shi, 570228, Hainan Province, China.
Adou Yao CYBiosciences, Université Félix Houphouet-Boigny, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast.
Yap SLInstitute of Arts and Sciences, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines.
Zahawi RADepartment of Biology, American University of Beirut, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon.
Zakaria RSchool of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
Zang RKey Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of State Forestry Administration, Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China.
English
Knowledge about the biogeographic affinities of the world's tropical forests helps to better understand regional differences in forest structure, diversity, composition, and dynamics. Such understanding will enable anticipation of region-specific responses to global environmental change. Modern phylogenies, in combination with broad coverage of species inventory data, now allow for global biogeographic analyses that take species evolutionary distance into account. Here we present a classification of the world's tropical forests based on their phylogenetic similarity. We identify five principal floristic regions and their floristic relationships: (i) Indo-Pacific, (ii) Subtropical, (iii) African, (iv) American, and (v) Dry forests. Our results do not support the traditional neo- versus paleotropical forest division but instead separate the combined American and African forests from their Indo-Pacific counterparts. We also find indications for the existence of a global dry forest region, with representatives in America, Africa, Madagascar, and India. Additionally, a northern-hemisphere Subtropical forest region was identified with representatives in Asia and America, providing support for a link between Asian and American northern-hemisphere forests.